To foster such a society, Confucians extol the five constant virtues (五常): benevolence (仁), righteousness (义), propriety (礼), wisdom (智), and integrity (信). Paragons who embody all five virtues are called junzi (君子), sometimes translated as “gentlemen” or “noble men,” while their direct opposites are xiaoren, literally “petty people,” and sometimes translated as “scoundrels.”
Throughout most of history, mainstream Confucians believed in the goodness inherent in humanity, that people can better themselves through education and learning from their superiors. The ideal ruler must be the ultimate junzi himself and lead by example, thereby uplifting all of society. In the same vein, Confucius expected officials to be virtuous parental figures, held to a higher moral standard than ordinary citizens.
Due to its emphasis on social order, Confucianism was easily the most influential and politically favored of the three schools throughout history. Its social contract was so absolute that even dynastic takeovers had to be performed in a way that did not “break it.” Usurpers who acted otherwise ran the risk of being seen as illegitimate in the eyes of the people. Famously, the old emperor had to offer the new emperor his position multiple times, with the new ruler declining three times (三让) before finally accepting.
Bonus: Legalism (法)
Though not regarded as one of the “big three” and although it received far less overt support, Legalism was enormously influential for one key reason: it served as the foundation for the entire Chinese government tradition for two thousand years, regardless of dynasty.
Unlike the three schools, which are each in pursuit of an ideal, Legalism is entirely utilitarian and concerned only with efficacy. This is reflected in its Chinese name, the “house of methods.” Core to its beliefs is the idea that human nature is selfish and evil, and so people must be motivated through reward and punishment. Morality is inconsequential, the ends justify the means, and the most effective administration must minimize corruption by restricting its subordinate administrators as much as possible.
It was with these tenets that the first unified Chinese empire, the Qin Dynasty, dismantled the existing feudalist system and established in its place a centralized government overseen by the emperor. After the Qin’s collapse—brought about in part due to how harsh a fully Legalist regime was on the people—the succeeding Han Dynasty under Emperor Wu of Han made sure to suppress Legalism as a philosophy. However, they inherited the entire Legalist government structure mostly unchanged, though their policies were softened by a push toward Confucianism. This trend of furtively repackaging Legalist tendencies within the leading school of thought (usually Confucianism) continued almost uninterrupted for this period of two thousand years, and rulers continued to study Legalist texts like the Han Feizi.
OTHER IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
DAOIST CULTIVATION, THE ZHUYANG STRATEGY, AND THE POWER OF FIVE
In real life, the scholar Tao Hongjing compiled the famous, three-volume Concealed Instructions for the Ascent to Perfection (登真隱訣, translated in the novel as “Dengzhen Concealed Instructions”). For Thousand Autumns, Meng Xi Shi invented an extra associated manual, called the Strategy of Vermillion Yang (朱陽策, translated in the novel as “Zhuyang Strategy”) after the real-life Monastery of Vermillion Yang on Mount Mao where Tao Hongjing secluded himself.
The Zhuyang Strategy draws heavily from classical concepts of Daoist cultivation and pulls together many ideas from Chinese culture. Primarily, they are based on the Wuqi Chaoyuan (五气朝元, roughly “Returning the Five Qi to the Origin”). The first lines of each of the Zhuyang Strategy’s five volumes correspond exactly to the Wuqi Chaoyuan’s five principles:
1. The heart conceals the mind; Houtian begets the conscious mind, while Xiantian begets propriety; once emptied of sorrow, the mind is settled, and the Fire from the Crimson Emperor of the South returns to the Origin.
2. The liver conceals the soul; Houtian begets the lost soul, while Xiantian begets benevolence; once emptied of joy, the soul is settled, and the Wood from the Azure Emperor of the East returns to the Origin.
3. The pancreas conceals the thought; Houtian begets the deluded thought, while Xiantian begets integrity; once emptied of desire, the thought is settled, and the Earth from the Yellow Emperor of the Center returns to the Origin.
4. The lungs conceal the anima; Houtian begets the corrupted anima, while Xiantian begets righteousness; once emptied of rage, the anima is settled, and the Metal from the White Emperor of the West returns to the Origin.
5. The kidneys conceal the essence; Houtian begets the clouded essence, while Xiantian begets wisdom; once emptied of cheer, the will is settled, and the Water from the Black Emperor of the North returns to the Origin.
The traditional Chinese worldview includes the Five Phases, the Deities of the Five Regions (also known as the Five Emperors), the five constant virtues, the Five Spirits, and the five major internal organs. The Wuqi Chaoyuan links all these ideas together, unifying them into a doctrine that explains how one can achieve immortal status or “godhood.” For those who are interested, we provide here a brief introduction to several of these concepts in hopes that readers can further appreciate the world of Thousand Autumns.
THE FIVE PHASES
The Wuxing (五行), sometimes translated as Five Agents or Five Elements, are a cornerstone of Daoist philosophy. Unlike the Four Elements proposed by Aristotle, the Five Phases—Metal (金), Wood (木), Water (水), Fire (火), and Earth (土)—are seen as dynamic, interdependent forces. Each phase can give rise to another (生), or suppress another (克). As Daoism dictates that all entities are bound by the natural order, the Five Phases can be seen as an overarching rule set that governs all aspects of nature. Most things are regarded as corresponding to a certain phase, including but not limited to planets, seasons, cardinal directions, organs, colors, and types of qi.
FIVE EMPERORS, FIVE REGIONS, FIVE COLORS
In Daoism, the Wufang Shangdi (五方上帝), or High Emperors of the Five Regions, are the fivefold manifestation of the Supreme Emperor of Heaven (天皇大帝), or simply Heaven (天). As they correspond to the Five Phases, each emperor has an associated cardinal direction, as well as a color that informs his namesake.
FIVE SPIRITS, FIVE ORGANS
The traditional Chinese conception of the spirit divides it into five separate aspects: mind (神), soul (魂), thought (意), anima (魄), and will (志). These classifications may not be a perfect match with their western definitions. For example, the will—which arises from the essence (精)—is responsible for memory, as well as discernment and judgment. A strong will is generally associated with clear-mindedness. In another example, the anima governs instincts, impulses, and reflex reactions, and is said to dissipate on death, unlike the soul.
Each of the five aspects is said to reside in one of the five major internal organs–heart, liver, pancreas (includes the spleen), lungs, and kidneys, which in turn also correspond to the Five Phases. The Wuqi Chaoyuan claims that part of ascending to immortality is learning how to “return” the true qi of each aspect to one’s Dantian, or “Origin.”
THE FOUR OCCUPATIONS
The 士农工商 classification of citizens as shi (eventually gentry scholars), nong (farmers), gong (artisans), and shang (merchants), was a cornerstone of ancient Chinese social hierarchy strongly asso- ciated with both Confucianism and Legalism.
As the upper class and decision-makers, the shi naturally ranked the highest, followed by the peasant farmers who were valued as the backbone of the nation. Merchant businessmen were seen as agents of exploitation who profited from price fluctuations, so they were placed lowest.
In practice, these hierarchical rankings shaped cultural attitudes more than they dictated political clout. Even though merchants were looked down upon, the much-needed cash flow they provided made them far more influential than the artisan and farmer classes. This created a curious situation—merchants were both sought after and derided by the shi in charge of governance. In later dynasties some merchants went so far as to purchase positions within the imperial court, making them honorary shi and granting them legal protections.
Though the shi remained firmly at the top of the social hierarchy regardless of the period, the membership of the class changed over time. Originally, the shi were warrior aristocrats not unlike western knights, but they became obsolete when the Warring States period mobilized the common folk for warfare. With the rise of philosophy, the warriors slowly gave way to scholars. Later, during the harsh Legalist regime of the Qin Dynasty, the emperor began assigning administrative responsibilities to learned scholars who showed promise and merit. To weaken the authority of the noble class, he dismantled the existing feudalist system in favor of a centralized bureaucracy of dedicated officials.
Though the Qin’s system of governance persisted well after the dynasty’s collapse, the importance of family lines meant that prominent scholar-officials effectively became the new aristocracy. Their wealth and influence almost always guaranteed their descendants the resources to land their own positions within the imperial court. Thousand Autumns includes examples of powerful clans like the Su and the Xie; one talented ancestor could elevate their entire family for generations to come. It wasn’t until the Tang Dynasty that a true merit-based system was introduced—the civil service exams—that would give capable commoners the chance to find their place in governance.